Kidney Stones (>2 cm, Staghorn)

Cause: Large or branching stones occupying renal pelvis/calyces.

Symptoms: Flank pain, hematuria, infection, renal obstruction.

Treatment: Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL, Mini/Ultra/Micro) – Percutaneous access with fragmentation and removal.

Kidney Stones (<2 cm, Flexible Access)

Cause: Small to medium stones accessible with ureteroscopy.

Symptoms: Flank pain, hematuria, colic.

Treatment: RIRS with Laser Lithotripsy – Flexible ureteroscope fragments stones using laser.

Kidney Stones (<2 cm, Non-Invasive Option)

Cause: Selected cases suitable for shock wave therapy.

Symptoms: Pain, hematuria, obstruction.

Treatment: ESWL – External shock waves break stones into passable fragments.

Ureteric Stones (Distal)

Cause: Stones lodged near bladder end of ureter.

Symptoms: Colicky pain, hematuria, infection.

Treatment: Rigid URS with laser/pneumatic lithotripsy, basket extraction.

Ureteric Stones (Proximal/Mid)

Cause: Stones higher in ureter.

Symptoms: Flank pain, hydronephrosis.

Treatment: Flexible URS (RIRS) with laser lithotripsy.

Bladder Stones

Cause: Stones forming or persisting in bladder, often with obstruction.

Symptoms: Frequency, dysuria, pain, hematuria.

Treatment: Cystolithotripsy – Endoscopic fragmentation; Percutaneous cystolithotomy for large stones/children.

Urethral Stones

Cause: Rare, stones stuck in urethra.

Symptoms: Severe dysuria, acute urinary retention.

Treatment: Endoscopic removal – Push into bladder for lithotripsy or extract directly.

Residual / Recurrent Stones

Cause: Incomplete clearance or new stone formation.

Symptoms: Repeat symptoms of colic, infection.

Treatment: Second-look PCNL, RIRS, URS depending on site.

Metabolic / Recurrent Stone Formers

Cause: Metabolic abnormalities predisposing to recurrence.

Symptoms: Recurrent stones, colic, infections.

Treatment: Endoscopic removal + metabolic evaluation and medical management for long-term prevention.